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Good morning. It's Tuesday, Nov. 18, and welcome to this week's Science & Technology newsletter. First time reading? Sign up here or click here to share with friends.

This week, we're covering Microsoft. Thursday marks the 40-year anniversary of the US release of the Windows 1.0 operating system, so we wanted to explore the history behind one of the world's biggest technology companies. We're also buzzing to share what we've learned about pollinators before blasting off for a deep dive on Mars.

Let us know what you think! Whether it's feedback on our email format, a comment on this week's topics, suggestions for future coverage, or something else, we're happy to hear from readers. You can get in touch by simply replying to this email.

—Marco Machado, 1440 Science & Technology Section Editor

The Personal Computing Giant

Microsoft, 101

Microsoft Corp. is one of the world's largest technology companies, best known for its Windows operating system and Office suite of productivity tools, which each run on over 1 billion devices.

Founded in 1975 by Bill Gates and Paul Allen, the company began by developing an interpreter—software that translates entered commands into a language a computer can execute—for the Altair 8800, the first commercially successful PC. A licensing deal with IBM in 1980 propelled Microsoft to dominate the PC operating system market with MS-DOS. It made personal computing more accessible with the release of the Windows graphical shell atop MS-DOS in 1985 and set the digital workplace standard with the release of Office for Windows in 1990 (a visual history of Windows).

Microsoft began focusing on cloud computing with Azure, which, as of 2025, provides back-end infrastructure to about 20% of the internet. Since Satya Nadella became CEO in 2014, partnerships in AI and acquisitions in video gaming have further expanded Microsoft’s impact.

Also, check out ...

> The Rolling Stones received $3M to use "Start Me Up" in a Windows promo. (More)

> Office Assistants, including Clippy, were digitally edited on a Macintosh. (More)

> Explore an emulated demo of Windows 95 Microsoft Plus! (More)

> The Japanese artist making masterpieces with Microsoft Excel. (More)

Explore everything else we've found on Microsoft.

In partnership with EnergyX

Meet America’s Newest $1B Unicorn

A US startup just hit a $1 billion valuation, joining billion-dollar private companies like SpaceX, OpenAI, and ByteDance. Unlike those other unicorns, you can invest. Over 35,000 people already have. So have industry giants like General Motors and POSCO.

Why all the interest? EnergyX’s patented tech can recover up to 300% more lithium than traditional methods. That's a big deal, as demand for lithium is expected to 18X current production levels by 2040. Today, they’re moving toward commercial production, tapping into 100,000+ acres of lithium deposits in Chile, a potential $1.1B annual revenue opportunity at projected market prices.

Right now, you can invest at this pivotal growth stage. Become an early-stage EnergyX shareholder today.*

Please support our sponsors!

Nature's Gardeners

What are pollinators?

Pollinators are insects and small animals that collect and carry pollen from one flowering plant to another, facilitating fertilization. Some scientists estimate that one out of every three bites of food we eat—everything from almonds and blueberries to bananas and cocoa—exists because of pollinators like bees, birds, and bats (see galleries).

These animals are lured by the bright colors, fragrances, and sweet nectar found in 80% of flowering plants into transporting genetic material—contained in pollen—from the male reproductive organs of one plant to the female organs of another (watch slow-motion video). The remaining 20% rely on wind to carry lightweight pollen grains through the air.

Pollinator populations have declined significantly in recent decades due to habitat loss resulting from agricultural expansion and urbanization, pesticide use, and climate change. The populations of some North American species of wild bees have decreased by 96% over the last two decades, putting pollinator-dependent food production at risk (learn more).

Also, check out ...

> Solar panels can create pollinator-friendly habitats. (More)

> Millions of honeybees are hauled across the US to help pollinate farms. (More)

> How honey is made and why it has such a large shelf life. (More)

> Watch how engineers are designing robot bees to help natural pollinators. (More)

Explore everything else we've found on pollinators.

The Red Planet

Mars, explained

Mars is the fourth terrestrial (or rocky) planet from the sun and Earth's closest planetary neighbor, at an average distance of 225 million kilometers. It is about half the size of Earth, contains a fraction of its atmosphere, and has two irregularly shaped moons: Phobos and Deimos.

Mars’ most salient feature, its red color, is the result of a rusted, iron-rich surface. The planet’s northern regions are significantly lower in elevation and feature fewer craters, while the south is higher and more rugged, suggesting that the north's surface formed more recently (see gallery). Mars’ thin atmosphere, which consists almost entirely of carbon dioxide, allows the sun’s intense ultraviolet rays to hit the surface unimpeded. However, the planet's average surface temperature is about -62 degrees Celsius (or -80 degrees Fahrenheit).

NASA aims to land humans on Mars in the 2030s, which would require astronauts to harvest subterranean ice deposits for water, compress the atmosphere to grow plants, and deploy weather-independent power systems (learn more).

Also, check out ...

> Particles found in Martian air pose significant risks to human lungs. (More)

> Geological features on Mars' surface provide evidence of past flooding. (More)

> Fly through the Valles Marineris, the largest canyon in the solar system. (More)

> Listen to what the atmosphere and NASA's equipment sound like on Mars. (More)

Explore everything else we've found on Mars.

Science Spotlight

Like all great scientists, we love spending time researching the latest scientific breakthroughs, tech releases, engaging explainers, and the connections between science and society that are making headlines. Here's what we found this week.

> Cells responsible for accelerating and slowing anxiety identified in mice

Utah Health | Sophia Friesen. Researchers transplanted microglia—brain immune cells—to discover their role in how mice's brains responded to anxiety. The results suggest specific neuropsychiatric disorders may result from defects in the brain's immune system and open the door for new anxiety disorder treatments. (Read)

> Mosquito hunting period identified in their circadian rhythms

Columbia News | Staff. The study focused on Aedes aegypti—a carrier of diseases like dengue, chikungunya, and Zika—and identified how biting patterns are influenced by the mosquito's own daily rhythm, peaking at dusk and dawn. Researchers hope these insights contribute to stopping the spread of mosquito-borne disease. (Read)

> Robots powered by popular AI models fail safety and discrimination tests

Carnegie Mellon University | Mallory Lindahl. Researchers evaluated how robots that use large language models behave when they have access to personal information. LLMs suggested robots display "disgust" toward individuals of certain religions and overwhelmingly approved commands to remove mobility aids. (Read)

> Solving the mystery of an impossibly massive black hole pair

Simons Foundation | Mara Johnson-Groh. A comprehensive set of simulations from the Flatiron Institute has revealed that incorporating magnetic fields allows black holes to exist in mass ranges previously thought to be impossible. The analysis helps explain a 2023 merger that took place 7 billion light-years from Earth. (Read)

> Developing computer models to accurately and simply represent protein folding

Yale University | Staff. Despite folding being critical to the function of these molecules, prohibitively long computational times had limited structural knowledge to only 40% of known human proteins. The new method represents the coarsest resolution possible to keep computations feasible and models accurate. (Read)

In partnership with EnergyX

35K+ People Bought This Tech Stock

No, not some buzzy AI company. It’s EnergyX, the startup whose patented tech can recover up to 3X more lithium than usual methods.

Lithium demand is expected to 18X current production levels by 2040, so that’s big. After acquiring ~50k acres of lithium-rich U.S. land and moving toward commercial production on a potential $1.1B annual project in Chile at projected market prices, EnergyX is scaling fast. No wonder General Motors and 35k+ people have already invested. Join them as an investor today.*

Please support our sponsors!

Best of the Week

We curate hundreds of resources into 1440 Topics each week. Here are some of our favorites from the world of science and technology.

> Explaining why the moon is moving away from Earth.

> How we learn about volcanoes using a portable suitcase.

> Why our bones don't grow forever.

> A deep dive into the chemistry of shooting stars.

> The origins of geodes.

> What makes laughter contagious?

> Exploring the manufacturing of paint.

> Understanding Turing machines.

> The challenges of erasing your digital fingerprints.

> What does being in space do to the human body?

Thank you to Eve M. for writing in and inspiring us with their question! Curious about something in science and technology? Tell us here.